Starting over a year ago, China has created an elaborate set of rules to cast a net over its exports of minerals the rest of the world can’t live without. These minerals with obscure names, mostly so-called rare earth metals, are vital for making a vast array of military and civilian goods, from fighter jets to semiconductors to cars.

一年多前开始，中国制定了一套复杂的管制体系，对全球不可或缺的关键矿产出口形成全面监管。这些名称拗口的矿物大多是所谓的稀土金属，是战斗机、半导体、汽车等各种军用与民用产品制造的核心材料。

The export controls have given Beijing enormous leverage because China is the dominant supplier. China is the sole producer, for example, of samarium, a rare earth metal used in many military applications. China is also the only country to master the difficult art of refining ultrapure dysprosium: The entire world’s supply, needed for superfast chips, comes from a single factory near Shanghai.

作为占据绝对优势的供应方，中国的这套出口管制体系赋予北京显著的战略杠杆。例如，中国是钐这一稀土金属的唯一生产国，它被广泛用于多种军事用途。中国也是全球唯一掌握超高纯度镝精炼技术的国家——这种稀土是制造超高速芯片所必需的材料，而全球的供应全部来自上海附近的一家工厂。

Perhaps most important, China makes 90 percent of the world’s rare earth magnets, used in electronics and electric motors. It is the only producer of some kinds of small magnets used in cars.

更具战略意义的是，中国垄断了全球90%的稀土磁铁产能，这些磁铁是电子设备和电动机的核心材料。某些用于汽车的特种小型磁铁也只有中国能够制造。

Beijing first invoked the new rules late last year. Officials suspended shipments to the United States of four metallic elements, but not yet rare earths, in retaliation after Washington placed tight limits on the export to China of the highest-performance semiconductors. China has since used export controls to put an increasingly tight grip on access to its rare earths.

北京于去年末首次启动该管制体系。当时，为了报复华盛顿对向中国出口高端芯片施加的严厉限制，中国暂停对美出口四种金属元素，但尚未涉及稀土。此后，中国通过出口管制措施，进一步收紧了全球对中国稀土资源的获取渠道。

China’s export controls have become a key point of contention with the U.S. government. They are expected to be discussed on Thursday when President Trump is set to meet with Xi Jinping, China’s top leader. Senior American policymakers expressed hope after trade talks on Sunday that China might defer enforcement of its new rules. China risks long-term damage to its own economy from the rules, by hurting the country’s image as a reliable supplier.

这些出口管制如今已成为中美政府间的一个关键争议点。预计特朗普总统周四与中国最高领导人习近平会晤时将就此进行磋商。美国高级政策官员在周日双方贸易谈判后表示，希望中国能暂缓这些新规的执行。值得注意的是，此类管制若长期实施可能冲击中国“可靠供应商”的国际形象，进而对其经济造成持续性损害。

Here is how China built its regulatory embargo around critical minerals.

以下是中国如何一步步建立起针对关键矿产的出口管制体系的。

Oct. 1, 2024

2024年10月1日

The opening shot: Detailed documentation requirements.

开场：细化的出口申报要求。

China starts requiring exporters of rare earth metals to obtain detailed information from all overseas customers on exactly how the metals will be used in their supply chains.

中国开始要求稀土金属出口商必须全面获取海外客户关于稀土在供应链中具体用途的详细信息。

• Takeaway: The rule gives the commerce ministry a comprehensive road map of the kinds and quantities of rare earths that companies around the world need.

• 关键影响：这一规定使中国商务部得以精准掌握全球企业所需稀土种类与数量的全景图谱。

Dec. 3, 2024

2024年12月3日

Restrictions on four non-rare earth minerals.

对四种非稀土金属实施出口管制。

China halts exports to the United States of four metallic elements that are not rare earths but still much needed. The commerce ministry restricts any further shipment of gallium or germanium, which are needed for manufacturing some kinds of semiconductors, and shipments of antimony or tungsten, used in ammunition and other military applications.

中国停止向美国出口四种金属元素，虽然它们不属于稀土，但仍然十分重要。中国商务部限制了镓和锗的进一步出口——这些是制造某些半导体所必需的材料；同时还限制了锑和钨的出口，这两种金属被用于弹药和其他军事用途。

• Takeaway: For the first time, China does not just limit exports directly to the United States but also bans companies in other countries from transferring materials to American firms.

• 关键影响：这是中国首次不仅直接限制对美出口，还禁止其他国家的企业将这些材料转销给美国公司。

中国江西的一座稀土矿。

April 4

4月4日

Export controls on some rare earth metals and magnets.

对部分稀土金属及磁铁实施出口管制。

China imposes export controls on seven of the 17 rare earth elements, as well as on magnets made with them, halting shipments to all countries, not just the United States. In the next two months, the commerce ministry approves very few export licenses. Automakers and their suppliers in the United States, Europe and Japan exhaust their inventories and in some cases delay production. The pace of license issuance picks up over the summer, but many overseas factories still face severe shortages.

中国对17种稀土元素中的七种及其制成品磁铁实施出口管制，管制范围不仅限于美国，而是覆盖所有国家。随后两个月，中国商务部几乎没有批准新的出口许可证，导致美欧日汽车制造商及其供应商库存告罄，部分企业被迫延迟生产。虽夏季起许可证发放节奏有所加快，但多数海外工厂仍面临严重供给短缺。

• Takeaway: More than six months later, exports remain halted for one rare earth, samarium, that is vital for military magnets. For the other six rare earths and for magnets, China grants six-month licenses. Many of these licenses will come up for renewal soon.

• 关键影响：六个多月后，军用磁铁关键材料钐的出口仍处于冻结状态。其余六种稀土及磁材产品虽获为期六个月的出口许可，但大量许可证即将面临续期的问题。

Oct. 9

10月9日

Stopping transfer of rare earth technical secrets.

稀土技术出口禁令。

In one of a barrage of actions that day, China’s commerce ministry orders an immediate halt, except with its approval, of any transfer out of the country of technology or information needed for almost the entire rare earth process — from mining to recycling. To curtail efforts by other countries to develop their own rare earth sectors, the order prohibits a wide range of activities, from the licensing of Chinese intellectual property to the hiring of personnel from China.

中国商务部当日连发多项禁令，除经批准外，立即禁止任何涉及稀土全流程的技术或信息外流——涵盖从采矿到回收的几乎所有环节。为遏制他国发展稀土产业，该禁令广泛限制包括知识产权授权、中方技术人员聘用在内的多种行为。

• Takeaway: China deploys export controls broadly to try to safeguard its almost complete chokehold on the industry.

• 关键影响：中国正运用出口管制体系全面巩固其对该领域近乎垄断的掌控。

Oct. 9

10月9日

Halting exports of rare earth processing equipment.

稀土加工设备出口禁令。

The commerce ministry also issues a long list of furnaces, chemicals, and other equipment and materials that are essential for processing rare earths, saying that none are allowed to leave China without approval starting Nov. 8.

中国商务部同时发布了一份长长的清单，列出了冶炼设备、化学品及其他用于稀土加工的关键设备和材料，并宣布自11月8日起，未经批准不得出口任何相关物品。

• Takeaway: China is the main producer of equipment for rare earth refineries and magnet factories, so this could delay efforts by other countries to set up their own production.

• 关键影响：作为稀土冶炼与磁材制造设备的主要供应国，此举将直接延缓各国建立产业链的进程。

中国包头的一家稀土冶炼厂。

Oct. 9

10月9日

Blocking exports of five more rare earths.

新增五种稀土出口管制。

The ministry adds five more rare earths to the list of seven that was issued on April 4 for which export licenses are required, as well as magnets and other materials made from them. The rule takes effect on Nov. 8.

在4月4日已列管的七种稀土基础上，商务部再将五种稀土及其衍生磁材纳入出口许可管制范围，新规同样于11月8日生效。

• Takeaway: By expanding the number of rare earths requiring licenses, China’s government would assert broader authority over global supply chains.

• 关键影响：通过扩大许可证管理范围，中国政府将进一步强化对全球稀土供应链的主导权。

Oct. 9

10月9日

Restricting battery manufacturing equipment.

限制电池制造设备出口。

The ministry issues a long list of battery-making materials that will not be allowed to leave China without special permission starting Nov. 8.

中国商务部发布了一份长长的电池制造材料清单，自11月8日起，未经特别许可不得出口。

• Takeaway: These changes would give China more clout over the world’s electric vehicle makers, which are major consumers of batteries, as well as electricity companies that need Chinese technology to build large grid-storage batteries for solar or wind energy.

• 关键影响：此举将增强中国对全球电动汽车制造商——它们是电池的重要买家——及电力企业——需依赖中国技术建设为太阳能或风能供电网络配套的大型储能装置——的议价能力。

Oct. 9

10月9日

Prohibiting exports of diamond saws and similar gear.

禁止出口金刚石线锯及类似设备。

The ministry stops the export of super-hard materials like diamond saws, which are used in manufacturing semiconductor and solar wafers, starting Nov. 8.

中国商务部宣布，自11月8日起，停止出口超硬材料，包括金刚石线锯等用于制造半导体晶圆和太阳能晶圆的设备。

• Takeaway: This could help China achieve leadership in semiconductor manufacturing and protect its 98 percent global market share in making solar wafers, the most important component of solar panels.

• 关键影响：此举有望巩固中国在半导体制造领域的主导地位，并维护其在太阳能晶圆（光伏组件核心）领域占据全球98%市场份额的优势。

Oct. 9

10月9日

Controlling the trade of rare earth magnets made outside China.

管控境外生产的稀土磁铁贸易。

The ministry prohibits any movement without its permission across any national border of magnets made outside China if rare earths from China represent at least 0.1 percent of the magnet’s value, starting Dec. 1. The ministry’s permission is also required for movements of magnets made overseas with rare earths technologies originally developed by China.

中国商务部宣布，自12月1日起，任何跨境磁铁运输——若其中所含的中国稀土价值占比达到或超过0.1%，均须事先获其批准。此外，凡是使用源自中国的稀土技术在境外生产的磁铁，跨国转运时也必须获得许可。

The ministry wrote the rule ambiguously so that it could apply to not only magnets but also practically anything manufactured outside China that includes traces of rare earths, from electric motors to car seats. Applications for ministry permission must provide extensive details on the products and how they will be used. Applications for military production will “in principle” be denied.

这项规定的措辞极为模糊，以便能够适用于更广泛的产品范围——不仅包括磁铁，还可能涵盖几乎所有含有微量稀土成分的境外制品，从电动机到汽车座椅皆在其列。申请许可须提交包含产品细节及用途的完整资料，涉及军事用途的申请“原则上”不予批准。

• Takeaway: China, which has tilted toward Russia in the Ukraine war, could use this rule to prevent other countries from supplying Ukraine with weapons or from building their own militaries.

• 关键影响：中国在俄乌战争中立场偏向俄罗斯，此项规定可能被用来阻止他国向乌克兰提供武器，或限制其他国家发展自身军工业。

Oct. 14

10月14日

Halting exports to Europe of Nexperia computer chips.

暂停向欧洲出口安世半导体计算机芯片。

Nexperia, a company in the Netherlands that was acquired in 2018 by a Chinese consortium, announces that it was ordered to halt exports from China of semiconductors. European automakers like Volkswagen soon begin running out of computer chips.

总部位于荷兰、于2018年被中资财团收购的安世半导体宣布该公司已接到指令，停止从中国对外出口半导体。随后，大众等欧洲汽车制造商出现芯片短缺。

• Takeaway: China, which acted after the Dutch government took control of Nexperia, shows again how it can use export controls to affect global supply chains.

• 关键影响：此举发生在荷兰政府接管安世半导体之后，再次显示中国能够通过出口管制手段影响全球供应链。